+ LWN.NET WEEKLY EDITION FOR AUGUST 30, 2018 \r
+\r
+ \r
+\r
+ o News link: https://lwn.net/Articles/763252/\r
+ o Source link: \r
+\r
+\r
+ [1]Welcome to the LWN.net Weekly Edition for August 30, 2018\r
+ This edition contains the following feature content:\r
+ \r
+ [2]An introduction to the Julia language, part 1 : Julia is a\r
+ language designed for intensive numerical calculations; this\r
+ article gives an overview of its core features.\r
+ \r
+ [3]C considered dangerous : a Linux Security Summit talk on\r
+ what is being done to make the use of C in the kernel safer.\r
+ \r
+ [4]The second half of the 4.19 merge window : the final\r
+ features merged (or not merged) before the merge window closed\r
+ for this cycle.\r
+ \r
+ [5]Measuring (and fixing) I/O-controller throughput loss : the\r
+ kernel's I/O controllers can provide useful bandwidth\r
+ guarantees, but at a significant cost in throughput.\r
+ \r
+ [6]KDE's onboarding initiative, one year later : what has gone\r
+ right in KDE's effort to make it easier for contributors to\r
+ join the project, and what remains to be done.\r
+ \r
+ [7]Sharing and archiving data sets with Dat : an innovative\r
+ approach to addressing and sharing data on the net.\r
+ \r
+ This week's edition also includes these inner pages:\r
+ \r
+ [8]Brief items : Brief news items from throughout the\r
+ community.\r
+ \r
+ [9]Announcements : Newsletters, conferences, security updates,\r
+ patches, and more.\r
+ \r
+ Please enjoy this week's edition, and, as always, thank you\r
+ for supporting LWN.net.\r
+ \r
+ [10]Comments (none posted)\r
+ \r
+ [11]An introduction to the Julia language, part 1\r
+ \r
+ August 28, 2018\r
+ \r
+ This article was contributed by Lee Phillips\r
+ \r
+ [12]Julia is a young computer language aimed at serving the\r
+ needs of scientists, engineers, and other practitioners of\r
+ numerically intensive programming. It was first publicly\r
+ released in 2012. After an intense period of language\r
+ development, version 1.0 was [13]released on August 8. The 1.0\r
+ release promises years of language stability; users can be\r
+ confident that developments in the 1.x series will not break\r
+ their code. This is the first part of a two-part article\r
+ introducing the world of Julia. This part will introduce\r
+ enough of the language syntax and constructs to allow you to\r
+ begin to write simple programs. The following installment will\r
+ acquaint you with the additional pieces needed to create real\r
+ projects, and to make use of Julia's ecosystem.\r
+ \r
+ Goals and history\r
+ \r
+ The Julia project has ambitious goals. It wants the language\r
+ to perform about as well as Fortran or C when running\r
+ numerical algorithms, while remaining as pleasant to program\r
+ in as Python. I believe the project has met these goals and is\r
+ poised to see increasing adoption by numerical researchers,\r
+ especially now that an official, stable release is available.\r
+ \r
+ The Julia project maintains a [14]micro-benchmark page that\r
+ compares its numerical performance against both statically\r
+ compiled languages (C, Fortran) and dynamically typed\r
+ languages (R, Python). While it's certainly possible to argue\r
+ about the relevance and fairness of particular benchmarks, the\r
+ data overall supports the Julia team's contention that Julia\r
+ has generally achieved parity with Fortran and C; the\r
+ benchmark source code is available.\r
+ \r
+ Julia began as research in computer science at MIT; its\r
+ creators are Alan Edelman, Stefan Karpinski, Jeff Bezanson,\r
+ and Viral Shah. These four remain active developers of the\r
+ language. They, along with Keno Fischer, co-founder and CTO of\r
+ [15]Julia Computing , were kind enough to share their thoughts\r
+ with us about the language. I'll be drawing on their comments\r
+ later on; for now, let's get a taste of what Julia code looks\r
+ like.\r
+ \r
+ Getting started\r
+ \r
+ To explore Julia initially, start up its standard\r
+ [16]read-eval-print loop (REPL) by typing julia at the\r
+ terminal, assuming that you have installed it. You will then\r
+ be able to interact with what will seem to be an interpreted\r
+ language — but, behind the scenes, those commands are being\r
+ compiled by a just-in-time (JIT) compiler that uses the\r
+ [17]LLVM compiler framework . This allows Julia to be\r
+ interactive, while turning the code into fast, native machine\r
+ instructions. However, the JIT compiler passes sometimes\r
+ introduce noticeable delays at the REPL, especially when using\r
+ a function for the first time.\r
+ \r
+ To run a Julia program non-interactively, execute a command\r
+ like: $ julia script.jl\r
+ \r
+ Julia has all the usual data structures: numbers of various\r
+ types (including complex and rational numbers),\r
+ multidimensional arrays, dictionaries, strings, and\r
+ characters. Functions are first-class: they can be passed as\r
+ arguments to other functions, can be members of arrays, and so\r
+ on.\r
+ \r
+ Julia embraces Unicode. Strings, which are enclosed in double\r
+ quotes, are arrays of Unicode characters, which are enclosed\r
+ in single quotes. The " * " operator is used for string and\r
+ character concatenation. Thus 'a' and 'β' are characters, and\r
+ 'aβ' is a syntax error. "a" and "β" are strings, as are "aβ",\r
+ 'a' * 'β', and "a" * "β" — all evaluate to the same string.\r
+ \r
+ Variable and function names can contain non-ASCII characters.\r
+ This, along with Julia's clever syntax that understands\r
+ numbers prepended to variables to mean multiplication, goes a\r
+ long way to allowing the numerical scientist to write code\r
+ that more closely resembles the compact mathematical notation\r
+ of the equations that usually lie behind it. julia ε₁ = 0.01\r
+ \r
+ 0.01\r
+ \r
+ julia ε₂ = 0.02\r
+ \r
+ 0.02\r
+ \r
+ julia 2ε₁ + 3ε₂\r
+ \r
+ 0.08\r
+ \r
+ And where does Julia come down on the age-old debate of what\r
+ do about 1/2 ? In Fortran and Python 2, this will get you 0,\r
+ since 1 and 2 are integers, and the result is rounded down to\r
+ the integer 0. This was deemed inconsistent, and confusing to\r
+ some, so it was changed in Python 3 to return 0.5 — which is\r
+ what you get in Julia, too.\r
+ \r
+ While we're on the subject of fractions, Julia can handle\r
+ rational numbers, with a special syntax: 3//5 + 2//3 returns\r
+ 19//15 , while 3/5 + 2/3 gets you the floating-point answer\r
+ 1.2666666666666666. Internally, Julia thinks of a rational\r
+ number in its reduced form, so the expression 6//8 == 3//4\r
+ returns true , and numerator(6//8) returns 3 .\r
+ \r
+ Arrays\r
+ \r
+ Arrays are enclosed in square brackets and indexed with an\r
+ iterator that can contain a step value: julia a = [1, 2, 3,\r
+ 4, 5, 6]\r
+ \r
+ 6-element Array{Int64,1}:\r
+ \r
+ 1\r
+ \r
+ 2\r
+ \r
+ 3\r
+ \r
+ 4\r
+ \r
+ 5\r
+ \r
+ 6\r
+ \r
+ julia a[1:2:end]\r
+ \r
+ 3-element Array{Int64,1}:\r
+ \r
+ 1\r
+ \r
+ 3\r
+ \r
+ 5\r
+ \r
+ As you can see, indexing starts at one, and the useful end\r
+ index means the obvious thing. When you define a variable in\r
+ the REPL, Julia replies with the type and value of the\r
+ assigned data; you can suppress this output by ending your\r
+ input line with a semicolon.\r
+ \r
+ Since arrays are such a vital part of numerical computation,\r
+ and Julia makes them easy to work with, we'll spend a bit more\r
+ time with them than the other data structures.\r
+ \r
+ To illustrate the syntax, we can start with a couple of 2D\r
+ arrays, defined at the REPL: julia a = [1 2 3; 4 5 6]\r
+ \r
+ 2×3 Array{Int64,2}:\r
+ \r
+ 1 2 3\r
+ \r
+ 4 5 6\r
+ \r
+ julia z = [-1 -2 -3; -4 -5 -6];\r
+ \r
+ Indexing is as expected: julia a[1, 2]\r
+ \r
+ 2\r
+ \r
+ You can glue arrays together horizontally: julia [a z]\r
+ \r
+ 2×6 Array{Int64,2}:\r
+ \r
+ 1 2 3 -1 -2 -3\r
+ \r
+ 4 5 6 -4 -5 -6\r
+ \r
+ And vertically: julia [a; z]\r
+ \r
+ 4×3 Array{Int64,2}:\r
+ \r
+ 1 2 3\r
+ \r
+ 4 5 6\r
+ \r
+ -1 -2 -3\r
+ \r
+ -4 -5 -6\r
+ \r
+ Julia has all the usual operators for handling arrays, and\r
+ [18]linear algebra functions that work with matrices (2D\r
+ arrays). The linear algebra functions are part of Julia's\r
+ standard library, but need to be imported with a command like\r
+ " using LinearAlgebra ", which is a detail omitted from the\r
+ current documentation. The functions include such things as\r
+ determinants, matrix inverses, eigenvalues and eigenvectors,\r
+ many kinds of matrix factorizations, etc. Julia has not\r
+ reinvented the wheel here, but wisely uses the [19]LAPACK\r
+ Fortran library of battle-tested linear algebra routines.\r
+ \r
+ The extension of arithmetic operators to arrays is usually\r
+ intuitive: julia a + z\r
+ \r
+ 2×3 Array{Int64,2}:\r
+ \r
+ 0 0 0\r
+ \r
+ 0 0 0\r
+ \r
+ And the numerical prepending syntax works with arrays, too:\r
+ julia 3a + 4z\r
+ \r
+ 2×3 Array{Int64,2}:\r
+ \r
+ -1 -2 -3\r
+ \r
+ -4 -5 -6\r
+ \r
+ Putting a multiplication operator between two matrices gets\r
+ you matrix multiplication: julia a * transpose(a)\r
+ \r
+ 2×2 Array{Int64,2}:\r
+ \r
+ 14 32\r
+ \r
+ 32 77\r
+ \r
+ You can "broadcast" numbers to cover all the elements in an\r
+ array by prepending the usual arithmetic operators with a dot:\r
+ julia 1 .+ a\r
+ \r
+ 2×3 Array{Int64,2}:\r
+ \r
+ 2 3 4\r
+ \r
+ 5 6 7\r
+ \r
+ Note that the language only actually requires the dot for some\r
+ operators, but not for others, such as "*" and "/". The\r
+ reasons for this are arcane, and it probably makes sense to be\r
+ consistent and use the dot whenever you intend broadcasting.\r
+ Note also that the current version of the official\r
+ documentation is incorrect in claiming that you may omit the\r
+ dot from "+" and "-"; in fact, this now gives an error.\r
+ \r
+ You can use the dot notation to turn any function into one\r
+ that operates on each element of an array: julia\r
+ round.(sin.([0, π/2, π, 3π/2, 2π]))\r
+ \r
+ 5-element Array{Float64,1}:\r
+ \r
+ 0.0\r
+ \r
+ 1.0\r
+ \r
+ 0.0\r
+ \r
+ -1.0\r
+ \r
+ -0.0\r
+ \r
+ The example above illustrates chaining two dotted functions\r
+ together. The Julia compiler turns expressions like this into\r
+ "fused" operations: instead of applying each function in turn\r
+ to create a new array that is passed to the next function, the\r
+ compiler combines the functions into a single compound\r
+ function that is applied once over the array, creating a\r
+ significant optimization.\r
+ \r
+ You can use this dot notation with any function, including\r
+ your own, to turn it into a version that operates element-wise\r
+ over arrays.\r
+ \r
+ Dictionaries (associative arrays) can be defined with several\r
+ syntaxes. Here's one: julia d1 = Dict("A"=1, "B"=2)\r
+ \r
+ Dict{String,Int64} with 2 entries:\r
+ \r
+ "B" = 2\r
+ \r
+ "A" = 1\r
+ \r
+ You may have noticed that the code snippets so far have not\r
+ included any type declarations. Every value in Julia has a\r
+ type, but the compiler will infer types if they are not\r
+ specified. It is generally not necessary to declare types for\r
+ performance, but type declarations sometimes serve other\r
+ purposes, that we'll return to later. Julia has a deep and\r
+ sophisticated type system, including user-defined types and\r
+ C-like structs. Types can have behaviors associated with them,\r
+ and can inherit behaviors from other types. The best thing\r
+ about Julia's type system is that you can ignore it entirely,\r
+ use just a few pieces of it, or spend weeks studying its\r
+ design.\r
+ \r
+ Control flow\r
+ \r
+ Julia code is organized in blocks, which can indicate control\r
+ flow, function definitions, and other code units. Blocks are\r
+ terminated with the end keyword, and indentation is not\r
+ significant. Statements are separated either with newlines or\r
+ semicolons.\r
+ \r
+ Julia has the typical control flow constructs; here is a while\r
+ block: julia i = 1;\r
+ \r
+ julia while i 5\r
+ \r
+ print(i)\r
+ \r
+ global i = i + 1\r
+ \r
+ end\r
+ \r
+ 1234\r
+ \r
+ Notice the global keyword. Most blocks in Julia introduce a\r
+ local scope for variables; without this keyword here, we would\r
+ get an error about an undefined variable.\r
+ \r
+ Julia has the usual if statements and for loops that use the\r
+ same iterators that we introduced above for array indexing. We\r
+ can also iterate over collections: julia for i ∈ ['a', 'b',\r
+ 'c']\r
+ \r
+ println(i)\r
+ \r
+ end\r
+ \r
+ a\r
+ \r
+ b\r
+ \r
+ c\r
+ \r
+ In place of the fancy math symbol in this for loop, we can use\r
+ " = " or " in ". If you want to use the math symbol but have\r
+ no convenient way to type it, the REPL will help you: type "\r
+ \in " and the TAB key, and the symbol appears; you can type\r
+ many [20]LaTeX expressions into the REPL in this way.\r
+ \r
+ Development of Julia\r
+ \r
+ The language is developed on GitHub, with over 700\r
+ contributors. The Julia team mentioned in their email to us\r
+ that the decision to use GitHub has been particularly good for\r
+ Julia, as it streamlined the process for many of their\r
+ contributors, who are scientists or domain experts in various\r
+ fields, rather than professional software developers.\r
+ \r
+ The creators of Julia have [21]published [PDF] a detailed\r
+ “mission statement” for the language, describing their aims\r
+ and motivations. A key issue that they wanted their language\r
+ to solve is what they called the "two-language problem." This\r
+ situation is familiar to anyone who has used Python or another\r
+ dynamic language on a demanding numerical problem. To get good\r
+ performance, you will wind up rewriting the numerically\r
+ intensive parts of the program in C or Fortran, dealing with\r
+ the interface between the two languages, and may still be\r
+ disappointed in the overhead presented by calling the foreign\r
+ routines from your original code.\r
+ \r
+ For Python, [22]NumPy and SciPy wrap many numerical routines,\r
+ written in Fortran or C, for efficient use from that language,\r
+ but you can only take advantage of this if your calculation\r
+ fits the pattern of an available routine; in more general\r
+ cases, where you will have to write a loop over your data, you\r
+ are stuck with Python's native performance, which is orders of\r
+ magnitude slower. If you switch to an alternative, faster\r
+ implementation of Python, such as [23]PyPy , the numerical\r
+ libraries may not be compatible; NumPy became available for\r
+ PyPy only within about the past year.\r
+ \r
+ Julia solves the two-language problem by being as expressive\r
+ and simple to program in as a dynamic scripting language,\r
+ while having the native performance of a static, compiled\r
+ language. There is no need to write numerical libraries in a\r
+ second language, but C or Fortran library routines can be\r
+ called using a facility that Julia has built-in. Other\r
+ languages, such as [24]Python or [25]R , can also interoperate\r
+ easily with Julia using external packages.\r
+ \r
+ Documentation\r
+ \r
+ There are many resources to turn to to learn the language.\r
+ There is an extensive and detailed [26]manual at Julia\r
+ headquarters, and this may be a good place to start. However,\r
+ although the first few chapters provide a gentle introduction,\r
+ the material soon becomes dense and, at times, hard to follow,\r
+ with references to concepts that are not explained until later\r
+ chapters. Fortunately, there is a [27]"learning" link at the\r
+ top of the Julia home page, which takes you to a long list of\r
+ videos, tutorials, books, articles, and classes both about\r
+ Julia and that use Julia in teaching subjects such a numerical\r
+ analysis. There is also a fairly good [28]cheat-sheet [PDF] ,\r
+ which was just updated for v. 1.0.\r
+ \r
+ If you're coming from Python, [29]this list of noteworthy\r
+ differences between Python and Julia syntax will probably be\r
+ useful.\r
+ \r
+ Some of the linked tutorials are in the form of [30]Jupyter\r
+ notebooks — indeed, the name "Jupyter" is formed from "Julia",\r
+ "Python", and "R", which are the three original languages\r
+ supported by the interface. The [31]Julia kernel for Jupyter\r
+ was recently upgraded to support v. 1.0. Judicious sampling of\r
+ a variety of documentation sources, combined with liberal\r
+ experimentation, may be the best way of learning the language.\r
+ Jupyter makes this experimentation more inviting for those who\r
+ enjoy the web-based interface, but the REPL that comes with\r
+ Julia helps a great deal in this regard by providing, for\r
+ instance, TAB completion and an extensive help system invoked\r
+ by simply pressing the "?" key.\r
+ \r
+ Stay tuned\r
+ \r
+ The [32]next installment in this two-part series will explain\r
+ how Julia is organized around the concept of "multiple\r
+ dispatch". You will learn how to create functions and make\r
+ elementary use of Julia's type system. We'll see how to\r
+ install packages and use modules, and how to make graphs.\r
+ Finally, Part 2 will briefly survey the important topics of\r
+ macros and distributed computing.\r
+ \r
+ [33]Comments (80 posted)\r
+ \r
+ [34]C considered dangerous\r
+ \r
+ By Jake Edge\r
+ \r
+ August 29, 2018\r
+ \r
+ [35]LSS NA\r
+ \r
+ At the North America edition of the [36]2018 Linux Security\r
+ Summit (LSS NA), which was held in late August in Vancouver,\r
+ Canada, Kees Cook gave a presentation on some of the dangers\r
+ that come with programs written in C. In particular, of\r
+ course, the Linux kernel is mostly written in C, which means\r
+ that the security of our systems rests on a somewhat dangerous\r
+ foundation. But there are things that can be done to help firm\r
+ things up by " Making C Less Dangerous " as the title of his\r
+ talk suggested.\r
+ \r
+ He began with a brief summary of the work that he and others\r
+ are doing as part of the [37]Kernel Self Protection Project\r
+ (KSPP). The goal of the project is to get kernel protections\r
+ merged into the mainline. These protections are not targeted\r
+ at protecting user-space processes from other (possibly rogue)\r
+ processes, but are, instead, focused on protecting the kernel\r
+ from user-space code. There are around 12 organizations and\r
+ ten individuals working on roughly 20 different technologies\r
+ as part of the KSPP, he said. The progress has been "slow and\r
+ steady", he said, which is how he thinks it should go. [38]\r
+ \r
+ One of the main problems is that C is treated mostly like a\r
+ fancy assembler. The kernel developers do this because they\r
+ want the kernel to be as fast and as small as possible. There\r
+ are other reasons, too, such as the need to do\r
+ architecture-specific tasks that lack a C API (e.g. setting up\r
+ page tables, switching to 64-bit mode).\r
+ \r
+ But there is lots of undefined behavior in C. This\r
+ "operational baggage" can lead to various problems. In\r
+ addition, C has a weak standard library with multiple utility\r
+ functions that have various pitfalls. In C, the content of\r
+ uninitialized automatic variables is undefined, but in the\r
+ machine code that it gets translated to, the value is whatever\r
+ happened to be in that memory location before. In C, a\r
+ function pointer can be called even if the type of the pointer\r
+ does not match the type of the function being called—assembly\r
+ doesn't care, it just jumps to a location, he said.\r
+ \r
+ The APIs in the standard library are also bad in many cases.\r
+ He asked: why is there no argument to memcpy() to specify the\r
+ maximum destination length? He noted a recent [39]blog post\r
+ from Raph Levien entitled "With Undefined Behavior, Anything\r
+ is Possible". That obviously resonated with Cook, as he\r
+ pointed out his T-shirt—with the title and artwork from the\r
+ post.\r
+ \r
+ Less danger\r
+ \r
+ He then moved on to some things that kernel developers can do\r
+ (and are doing) to get away from some of the dangers of C. He\r
+ began with variable-length arrays (VLAs), which can be used to\r
+ overflow the stack to access data outside of its region. Even\r
+ if the stack has a guard page, VLAs can be used to jump past\r
+ it to write into other memory, which can then be used by some\r
+ other kind of attack. The C language is "perfectly fine with\r
+ this". It is easy to find uses of VLAs with the -Wvla flag,\r
+ however.\r
+ \r
+ But it turns out that VLAs are [40]not just bad from a\r
+ security perspective , they are also slow. In a\r
+ micro-benchmark associated with a [41]patch removing a VLA , a\r
+ 13% performance boost came from using a fixed-size array. He\r
+ dug in a bit further and found that much more code is being\r
+ generated to handle a VLA, which explains the speed increase.\r
+ Since Linus Torvalds has [42]declared that VLAs should be\r
+ removed from the kernel because they cause security problems\r
+ and also slow the kernel down; Cook said "don't use VLAs".\r
+ \r
+ Another problem area is switch statements, in particular where\r
+ there is no break for a case . That could mean that the\r
+ programmer expects and wants to fall through to the next case\r
+ or it could be that the break was simply forgotten. There is a\r
+ way to get a warning from the compiler for fall-throughs, but\r
+ there needs to be a way to mark those that are truly meant to\r
+ be that way. A special fall-through "statement" in the form of\r
+ a comment is what has been agreed on within the\r
+ static-analysis community. He and others have been going\r
+ through each of the places where there is no break to add\r
+ these comments (or a break ); they have "found a lot of bugs\r
+ this way", he said.\r
+ \r
+ Uninitialized local variables will generate a warning, but not\r
+ if the variable is passed in by reference. There are some GCC\r
+ plugins that will automatically initialize these variables,\r
+ but there are also patches for both GCC and Clang to provide a\r
+ compiler option to do so. Neither of those is upstream yet,\r
+ but Torvalds has praised the effort so the kernel would likely\r
+ use the option. An interesting side effect that came about\r
+ while investigating this was a warning he got about\r
+ unreachable code when he enabled the auto-initialization.\r
+ There were two variables declared just after a switch (and\r
+ outside of any case ), where they would never be reached.\r
+ \r
+ Arithmetic overflow is another undefined behavior in C that\r
+ can cause various problems. GCC can check for signed overflow,\r
+ which performs well (the overhead is in the noise, he said),\r
+ but adding warning messages for it does grow the kernel by 6%;\r
+ making the overflow abort, instead, only adds 0.1%. Clang can\r
+ check for both signed and unsigned overflow; signed overflow\r
+ is undefined, while unsigned overflow is defined, but often\r
+ unexpected. Marking places where unsigned overflow is expected\r
+ is needed; it would be nice to get those annotations put into\r
+ the kernel, Cook said.\r
+ \r
+ Explicit bounds checking is expensive. Doing it for\r
+ copy_{to,from}_user() is a less than 1% performance hit, but\r
+ adding it to the strcpy() and memcpy() families are around a\r
+ 2% hit. Pre-Meltdown that would have been a totally impossible\r
+ performance regression for security, he said; post-Meltdown,\r
+ since it is less than 5%, maybe there is a chance to add this\r
+ checking.\r
+ \r
+ Better APIs would help as well. He pointed to the evolution of\r
+ strcpy() , through str n cpy() and str l cpy() (each with\r
+ their own bounds flaws) to str s cpy() , which seems to be "OK\r
+ so far". He also mentioned memcpy() again as a poor API with\r
+ respect to bounds checking.\r
+ \r
+ Hardware support for bounds checking is available in the\r
+ application data integrity (ADI) feature for SPARC and is\r
+ coming for Arm; it may also be available for Intel processors\r
+ at some point. These all use a form of "memory tagging", where\r
+ allocations get a tag that is stored in the high-order byte of\r
+ the address. An offset from the address can be checked by the\r
+ hardware to see if it still falls within the allocated region\r
+ based on the tag.\r
+ \r
+ Control-flow integrity (CFI) has become more of an issue\r
+ lately because much of what attackers had used in the past has\r
+ been marked as "no execute" so they are turning to using\r
+ existing code "gadgets" already present in the kernel by\r
+ hijacking existing indirect function calls. In C, you can just\r
+ call pointers without regard to the type as it just treats\r
+ them as an address to jump to. Clang has a CFI-sanitize\r
+ feature that enforces the function prototype to restrict the\r
+ calls that can be made. It is done at runtime and is not\r
+ perfect, in part because there are lots of functions in the\r
+ kernel that take one unsigned long parameter and return an\r
+ unsigned long.\r
+ \r
+ Attacks on CFI have both a "forward edge", which is what CFI\r
+ sanitize tries to handle, and a "backward edge" that comes\r
+ from manipulating the stack values, the return address in\r
+ particular. Clang has two methods available to prevent the\r
+ stack manipulation. The first is the "safe stack", which puts\r
+ various important items (e.g. "safe" variables, register\r
+ spills, and the return address) on a separate stack.\r
+ Alternatively, the "shadow stack" feature creates a separate\r
+ stack just for return addresses.\r
+ \r
+ One problem with these other stacks is that they are still\r
+ writable, so if an attacker can find them in memory, they can\r
+ still perform their attacks. Hardware-based protections, like\r
+ Intel's Control-Flow Enforcement Technology (CET),\r
+ [43]provides a read-only shadow call stack for return\r
+ addresses. Another hardware protection is [44]pointer\r
+ authentication for Arm, which adds a kind of encrypted tag to\r
+ the return address that can be verified before it is used.\r
+ \r
+ Status and challenges\r
+ \r
+ Cook then went through the current status of handling these\r
+ different problems in the kernel. VLAs are almost completely\r
+ gone, he said, just a few remain in the crypto subsystem; he\r
+ hopes those VLAs will be gone by 4.20 (or whatever the number\r
+ of the next kernel release turns out to be). Once that\r
+ happens, he plans to turn on -Wvla for the kernel build so\r
+ that none creep back in.\r
+ \r
+ There has been steady progress made on marking fall-through\r
+ cases in switch statements. Only 745 remain to be handled of\r
+ the 2311 that existed when this work started; each one\r
+ requires scrutiny to determine what the author's intent is.\r
+ Auto-initialized local variables can be done using compiler\r
+ plugins, but that is "not quite what we want", he said. More\r
+ compiler support would be helpful there. For arithmetic\r
+ overflow, it would be nice to see GCC get support for the\r
+ unsigned case, but memory allocations are now doing explicit\r
+ overflow checking at this point.\r
+ \r
+ Bounds checking has seen some "crying about performance hits",\r
+ so we are waiting impatiently for hardware support, he said.\r
+ CFI forward-edge protection needs [45]link-time optimization\r
+ (LTO) support for Clang in the kernel, but it is currently\r
+ working on Android. For backward-edge mitigation, the Clang\r
+ shadow call stack is working on Android, but we are\r
+ impatiently waiting for hardware support for that too.\r
+ \r
+ There are a number of challenges in doing security development\r
+ for the kernel, Cook said. There are cultural boundaries due\r
+ to conservatism within the kernel community; that requires\r
+ patiently working and reworking features in order to get them\r
+ upstream. There are, of course, technical challenges because\r
+ of the complexity of security changes; those kinds of problems\r
+ can be solved. There are also resource limitations in terms of\r
+ developers, testers, reviewers, and so on. KSPP and the other\r
+ kernel security developers are still making that "slow but\r
+ steady" progress.\r
+ \r
+ Cook's [46]slides [PDF] are available for interested readers;\r
+ before long, there should be a video available of the talk as\r
+ well.\r
+ \r
+ [I would like to thank LWN's travel sponsor, the Linux\r
+ Foundation, for travel assistance to attend the Linux Security\r
+ Summit in Vancouver.]\r
+ \r
+ [47]Comments (70 posted)\r
+ \r
+ [48]The second half of the 4.19 merge window\r
+ \r
+ By Jonathan Corbet\r
+ \r
+ August 26, 2018 By the time Linus Torvalds [49]released\r
+ 4.19-rc1 and closed the merge window for this development\r
+ cycle, 12,317 non-merge changesets had found their way into\r
+ the mainline; about 4,800 of those landed after [50]last\r
+ week's summary was written. As tends to be the case late in\r
+ the merge window, many of those changes were fixes for the\r
+ bigger patches that went in early, but there were also a\r
+ number of new features added. Some of the more significant\r
+ changes include:\r
+ \r
+ Core kernel\r
+ \r
+ The full set of patches adding [51]control-group awareness to\r
+ the out-of-memory killer has not been merged due to ongoing\r
+ disagreements, but one piece of it has: there is a new\r
+ memory.oom.group control knob that will cause all processes\r
+ within a control group to be killed in an out-of-memory\r
+ situation.\r
+ \r
+ A new set of protections has been added to prevent an attacker\r
+ from fooling a program into writing to an existing file or\r
+ FIFO. An open with the O_CREAT flag to a file or FIFO in a\r
+ world-writable, sticky directory (e.g. /tmp ) will fail if the\r
+ owner of the opening process is not the owner of either the\r
+ target file or the containing directory. This behavior,\r
+ disabled by default, is controlled by the new\r
+ protected_regular and protected_fifos sysctl knobs.\r
+ \r
+ Filesystems and block layer\r
+ \r
+ The dm-integrity device-mapper target can now use a separate\r
+ device for metadata storage.\r
+ \r
+ EROFS, the "enhanced read-only filesystem", has been added to\r
+ the staging tree. It is " a lightweight read-only file system\r
+ with modern designs (eg. page-sized blocks, inline\r
+ xattrs/data, etc.) for scenarios which need high-performance\r
+ read-only requirements, eg. firmwares in mobile phone or\r
+ LIVECDs "\r
+ \r
+ The new "metadata copy-up" feature in overlayfs will avoid\r
+ copying a file's contents to the upper layer on a\r
+ metadata-only change. See [52]this commit for details.\r
+ \r
+ Hardware support\r
+ \r
+ Graphics : Qualcomm Adreno A6xx GPUs.\r
+ \r
+ Industrial I/O : Spreadtrum SC27xx series PMIC\r
+ analog-to-digital converters, Analog Devices AD5758\r
+ digital-to-analog converters, Intersil ISL29501 time-of-flight\r
+ sensors, Silicon Labs SI1133 UV index/ambient light sensor\r
+ chips, and Bosch Sensortec BME680 sensors.\r
+ \r
+ Miscellaneous : Generic ADC-based resistive touchscreens,\r
+ Generic ASIC devices via the Google [53]Gasket framework ,\r
+ Analog Devices ADGS1408/ADGS1409 multiplexers, Actions Semi\r
+ Owl SoCs DMA controllers, MEN 16Z069 watchdog timers, Rohm\r
+ BU21029 touchscreen controllers, Cirrus Logic CS47L35,\r
+ CS47L85, CS47L90, and CS47L91 codecs, Cougar 500k gaming\r
+ keyboards, Qualcomm GENI-based I2C controllers, Actions\r
+ Semiconductor Owl I2C controllers, ChromeOS EC-based USBPD\r
+ chargers, and Analog Devices ADP5061 battery chargers.\r
+ \r
+ USB : Nuvoton NPCM7XX on-chip EHCI USB controllers, Broadcom\r
+ Stingray PCIe PHYs, and Renesas R-Car generation 3 PCIe PHYs.\r
+ \r
+ There is also a new subsystem for the abstraction of GNSS\r
+ (global navigation satellite systems — GPS, for example)\r
+ receivers in the kernel. To date, such devices have been\r
+ handled with an abundance of user-space drivers; the hope is\r
+ to bring some order in this area. Support for u-blox and\r
+ SiRFstar receivers has been added as well.\r
+ \r
+ Kernel internal\r
+ \r
+ The __deprecated marker, used to mark interfaces that should\r
+ no longer be used, has been deprecated and removed from the\r
+ kernel entirely. [54]Torvalds said : " They are not useful.\r
+ They annoy everybody, and nobody ever does anything about\r
+ them, because it's always 'somebody elses problem'. And when\r
+ people start thinking that warnings are normal, they stop\r
+ looking at them, and the real warnings that mean something go\r
+ unnoticed. "\r
+ \r
+ The minimum version of GCC required by the kernel has been\r
+ moved up to 4.6.\r
+ \r
+ There are a couple of significant changes that failed to get\r
+ in this time around, including the [55]XArray data structure.\r
+ The patches are thought to be ready, but they had the bad luck\r
+ to be based on a tree that failed to be merged for other\r
+ reasons, so Torvalds [56]didn't even look at them . That, in\r
+ turn, blocks another set of patches intended to enable\r
+ migration of slab-allocated objects.\r
+ \r
+ The other big deferral is the [57]new system-call API for\r
+ filesystem mounting . Despite ongoing [58]concerns about what\r
+ happens when the same low-level device is mounted multiple\r
+ times with conflicting options, Al Viro sent [59]a pull\r
+ request to send this work upstream. The ensuing discussion\r
+ made it clear that there is still not a consensus in this\r
+ area, though, so it seems that this work has to wait for\r
+ another cycle.\r
+ \r
+ Assuming all goes well, the kernel will stabilize over the\r
+ coming weeks and the final 4.19 release will happen in\r
+ mid-October.\r
+ \r
+ [60]Comments (1 posted)\r
+ \r
+ [61]Measuring (and fixing) I/O-controller throughput loss\r
+ \r
+ August 29, 2018\r
+ \r
+ This article was contributed by Paolo Valente\r
+ \r
+ Many services, from web hosting and video streaming to cloud\r
+ storage, need to move data to and from storage. They also\r
+ often require that each per-client I/O flow be guaranteed a\r
+ non-zero amount of bandwidth and a bounded latency. An\r
+ expensive way to provide these guarantees is to over-provision\r
+ storage resources, keeping each resource underutilized, and\r
+ thus have plenty of bandwidth available for the few I/O flows\r
+ dispatched to each medium. Alternatively one can use an I/O\r
+ controller. Linux provides two mechanisms designed to throttle\r
+ some I/O streams to allow others to meet their bandwidth and\r
+ latency requirements. These mechanisms work, but they come at\r
+ a cost: a loss of as much as 80% of total available I/O\r
+ bandwidth. I have run some tests to demonstrate this problem;\r
+ some upcoming improvements to the [62]bfq I/O scheduler\r
+ promise to improve the situation considerably.\r
+ \r
+ Throttling does guarantee control, even on drives that happen\r
+ to be highly utilized but, as will be seen, it has a hard time\r
+ actually ensuring that drives are highly utilized. Even with\r
+ greedy I/O flows, throttling easily ends up utilizing as\r
+ little as 20% of the available speed of a flash-based drive.\r
+ Such a speed loss may be particularly problematic with\r
+ lower-end storage. On the opposite end, it is also\r
+ disappointing with high-end hardware, as the Linux block I/O\r
+ stack itself has been [63]redesigned from the ground up to\r
+ fully utilize the high speed of modern, fast storage. In\r
+ addition, throttling fails to guarantee the expected\r
+ bandwidths if I/O contains both reads and writes, or is\r
+ sporadic in nature.\r
+ \r
+ On the bright side, there now seems to be an effective\r
+ alternative for controlling I/O: the proportional-share policy\r
+ provided by the bfq I/O scheduler. It enables nearly 100%\r
+ storage bandwidth utilization, at least with some of the\r
+ workloads that are problematic for throttling. An upcoming\r
+ version of bfq may be able to achieve this result with almost\r
+ all workloads. Finally, bfq guarantees bandwidths with all\r
+ workloads. The current limitation of bfq is that its execution\r
+ overhead becomes significant at speeds above 400,000 I/O\r
+ operations per second on commodity CPUs.\r
+ \r
+ Using the bfq I/O scheduler, Linux can now guarantee low\r
+ latency to lightweight flows containing sporadic, short I/O.\r
+ No throughput issues arise, and no configuration is required.\r
+ This capability benefits important, time-sensitive tasks, such\r
+ as video or audio streaming, as well as executing commands or\r
+ starting applications. Although benchmarks are not available\r
+ yet, these guarantees might also be provided by the newly\r
+ proposed [64]I/O latency controller . It allows administrators\r
+ to set target latencies for I/O requests originating from each\r
+ group of processes, and favors the groups with the lowest\r
+ target latency.\r
+ \r
+ The testbed\r
+ \r
+ I ran the tests with an ext4 filesystem mounted on a PLEXTOR\r
+ PX-256M5S SSD, which features a peak rate of ~160MB/s with\r
+ random I/O, and of ~500MB/s with sequential I/O. I used\r
+ blk-mq, in Linux 4.18. The system was equipped with a 2.4GHz\r
+ Intel Core i7-2760QM CPU and 1.3GHz DDR3 DRAM. In such a\r
+ system, a single thread doing synchronous reads reaches a\r
+ throughput of 23MB/s.\r
+ \r
+ For the purposes of these tests, each process is considered to\r
+ be in one of two groups, termed "target" and "interferers". A\r
+ target is a single-process, I/O-bound group whose I/O is\r
+ focused on. In particular, I measure the I/O throughput\r
+ enjoyed by this group to get the minimum bandwidth delivered\r
+ to the group. An interferer is single-process group whose role\r
+ is to generate additional I/O that interferes with the I/O of\r
+ the target. The tested workloads contain one target and\r
+ multiple interferers.\r
+ \r
+ The single process in each group either reads or writes,\r
+ through asynchronous (buffered) operations, to one file —\r
+ different from the file read or written by any other process —\r
+ after invalidating the buffer cache for the file. I define a\r
+ reader or writer process as either "random" or "sequential",\r
+ depending on whether it reads or writes its file at random\r
+ positions or sequentially. Finally, an interferer is defined\r
+ as being either "active" or "inactive" depending on whether it\r
+ performs I/O during the test. When an interferer is mentioned,\r
+ it is assumed that the interferer is active.\r
+ \r
+ Workloads are defined so as to try to cover the combinations\r
+ that, I believe, most influence the performance of the storage\r
+ device and of the I/O policies. For brevity, in this article I\r
+ show results for only two groups of workloads:\r
+ \r
+ Static sequential : four synchronous sequential readers or\r
+ four asynchronous sequential writers, plus five inactive\r
+ interferers.\r
+ \r
+ Static random : four synchronous random readers, all with a\r
+ block size equal to 4k, plus five inactive interferers.\r
+ \r
+ To create each workload, I considered, for each mix of\r
+ interferers in the group, two possibilities for the target: it\r
+ could be either a random or a sequential synchronous reader.\r
+ In [65]a longer version of this article [PDF] , you will also\r
+ find results for workloads with varying degrees of I/O\r
+ randomness, and for dynamic workloads (containing sporadic I/O\r
+ sources). These extra results confirm the losses of throughput\r
+ and I/O control for throttling that are shown here.\r
+ \r
+ I/O policies\r
+ \r
+ Linux provides two I/O-control mechanisms for guaranteeing (a\r
+ minimum) bandwidth, or at least fairness, to long-lived flows:\r
+ the throttling and proportional-share I/O policies. With\r
+ throttling, one can set a maximum bandwidth limit — "max\r
+ limit" for brevity — for the I/O of each group. Max limits can\r
+ be used, in an indirect way, to provide the service guarantee\r
+ at the focus of this article. For example, to guarantee\r
+ minimum bandwidths to I/O flows, a group can be guaranteed a\r
+ minimum bandwidth by limiting the maximum bandwidth of all the\r
+ other groups.\r
+ \r
+ Unfortunately, max limits have two drawbacks in terms of\r
+ throughput. First, if some groups do not use their allocated\r
+ bandwidth, that bandwidth cannot be reclaimed by other active\r
+ groups. Second, limits must comply with the worst-case speed\r
+ of the device, namely, its random-I/O peak rate. Such limits\r
+ will clearly leave a lot of throughput unused with workloads\r
+ that otherwise would drive the device to higher throughput\r
+ levels. Maximizing throughput is simply not a goal of max\r
+ limits. So, for brevity, test results with max limits are not\r
+ shown here. You can find these results, plus a more detailed\r
+ description of the above drawbacks, in the long version of\r
+ this article.\r
+ \r
+ Because of these drawbacks, a new, still experimental, low\r
+ limit has been added to the throttling policy. If a group is\r
+ assigned a low limit, then the throttling policy automatically\r
+ limits the I/O of the other groups in such a way to guarantee\r
+ to the group a minimum bandwidth equal to its assigned low\r
+ limit. This new throttling mechanism throttles no group as\r
+ long as every group is getting at least its assigned minimum\r
+ bandwidth. I tested this mechanism, but did not consider the\r
+ interesting problem of guaranteeing minimum bandwidths while,\r
+ at the same time, enforcing maximum bandwidths.\r
+ \r
+ The other I/O policy available in Linux, proportional share,\r
+ provides weighted fairness. Each group is assigned a weight,\r
+ and should receive a portion of the total throughput\r
+ proportional to its weight. This scheme guarantees minimum\r
+ bandwidths in the same way that low limits do in throttling.\r
+ In particular, it guarantees to each group a minimum bandwidth\r
+ equal to the ratio between the weight of the group, and the\r
+ sum of the weights of all the groups that may be active at the\r
+ same time.\r
+ \r
+ The actual implementation of the proportional-share policy, on\r
+ a given drive, depends on what flavor of the block layer is in\r
+ use for that drive. If the drive is using the legacy block\r
+ interface, the policy is implemented by the cfq I/O scheduler.\r
+ Unfortunately, cfq fails to control bandwidths with\r
+ flash-based storage, especially on drives featuring command\r
+ queueing. This case is not considered in these tests. With\r
+ drives using the multiqueue interface, proportional share is\r
+ implemented by bfq. This is the combination considered in the\r
+ tests.\r
+ \r
+ To benchmark both throttling (low limits) and proportional\r
+ share, I tested, for each workload, the combinations of I/O\r
+ policies and I/O schedulers reported in the table below. In\r
+ the end, there are three test cases for each workload. In\r
+ addition, for some workloads, I considered two versions of bfq\r
+ for the proportional-share policy.\r
+ \r
+ Name\r
+ \r
+ I/O policy\r
+ \r
+ Scheduler\r
+ \r
+ Parameter for target\r
+ \r
+ Parameter for each of the four active interferers\r
+ \r
+ Parameter for each of the five inactive interferers\r
+ \r
+ Sum of parameters\r
+ \r
+ low-none\r
+ \r
+ Throttling with low limits\r
+ \r
+ none\r
+ \r
+ 10MB/s\r
+ \r
+ 10MB/s (tot: 40)\r
+ \r
+ 20MB/s (tot: 100)\r
+ \r
+ 150MB/s\r
+ \r
+ prop-bfq\r
+ \r
+ Proportional share\r
+ \r
+ bfq\r
+ \r
+ 300\r
+ \r
+ 100 (tot: 400)\r
+ \r
+ 200 (tot: 1000)\r
+ \r
+ 1700\r
+ \r
+ For low limits, I report results with only none as the I/O\r
+ scheduler, because the results are the same with kyber and\r
+ mq-deadline.\r
+ \r
+ The capabilities of the storage medium and of low limits drove\r
+ the policy configurations. In particular:\r
+ \r
+ The configuration of the target and of the active interferers\r
+ for low-none is the one for which low-none provides its best\r
+ possible minimum-bandwidth guarantee to the target: 10MB/s,\r
+ guaranteed if all interferers are readers. Results remain the\r
+ same regardless of the values used for target latency and idle\r
+ time; I set them to 100µs and 1000µs, respectively, for every\r
+ group.\r
+ \r
+ Low limits for inactive interferers are set to twice the\r
+ limits for active interferers, to pose greater difficulties to\r
+ the policy.\r
+ \r
+ I chose weights for prop-bfq so as to guarantee about the same\r
+ minimum bandwidth as low-none to the target, in the same\r
+ only-reader worst case as for low-none and to preserve,\r
+ between the weights of active and inactive interferers, the\r
+ same ratio as between the low limits of active and inactive\r
+ interferers.\r
+ \r
+ Full details on configurations can be found in the long\r
+ version of this article.\r
+ \r
+ Each workload was run ten times for each policy, plus ten\r
+ times without any I/O control, i.e., with none as I/O\r
+ scheduler and no I/O policy in use. For each run, I measured\r
+ the I/O throughput of the target (which reveals the bandwidth\r
+ provided to the target), the cumulative I/O throughput of the\r
+ interferers, and the total I/O throughput. These quantities\r
+ fluctuated very little during each run, as well as across\r
+ different runs. Thus in the graphs I report only averages over\r
+ per-run average throughputs. In particular, for the case of no\r
+ I/O control, I report only the total I/O throughput, to give\r
+ an idea of the throughput that can be reached without imposing\r
+ any control.\r
+ \r
+ Results\r
+ \r
+ This plot shows throughput results for the simplest group of\r
+ workloads: the static-sequential set.\r
+ \r
+ With a random reader as the target against sequential readers\r
+ as interferers, low-none does guarantee the configured low\r
+ limit to the target. Yet it reaches only a low total\r
+ throughput. The throughput of the random reader evidently\r
+ oscillates around 10MB/s during the test. This implies that it\r
+ is at least slightly below 10MB/s for a significant percentage\r
+ of the time. But when this happens, the low-limit mechanism\r
+ limits the maximum bandwidth of every active group to the low\r
+ limit set for the group, i.e., to just 10MB/s. The end result\r
+ is a total throughput lower than 10% of the throughput reached\r
+ without I/O control.\r
+ \r
+ That said, the high throughput achieved without I/O control is\r
+ obtained by choking the random I/O of the target in favor of\r
+ the sequential I/O of the interferers. Thus, it is probably\r
+ more interesting to compare low-none throughput with the\r
+ throughput reachable while actually guaranteeing 10MB/s to the\r
+ target. The target is a single, synchronous, random reader,\r
+ which reaches 23MB/s while active. So, to guarantee 10MB/s to\r
+ the target, it is enough to serve it for about half of the\r
+ time, and the interferers for the other half. Since the device\r
+ reaches ~500MB/s with the sequential I/O of the interferers,\r
+ the resulting throughput with this service scheme would be\r
+ (500+23)/2, or about 260MB/s. low-none thus reaches less than\r
+ 20% of the total throughput that could be reached while still\r
+ preserving the target bandwidth.\r
+ \r
+ prop-bfq provides the target with a slightly higher throughput\r
+ than low-none. This makes it harder for prop-bfq to reach a\r
+ high total throughput, because prop-bfq serves more random I/O\r
+ (from the target) than low-none. Nevertheless, prop-bfq gets a\r
+ much higher total throughput than low-none. According to the\r
+ above estimate, this throughput is about 90% of the maximum\r
+ throughput that could be reached, for this workload, without\r
+ violating service guarantees. The reason for this good result\r
+ is that bfq provides an effective implementation of the\r
+ proportional-share service policy. At any time, each active\r
+ group is granted a fraction of the current total throughput,\r
+ and the sum of these fractions is equal to one; so group\r
+ bandwidths naturally saturate the available total throughput\r
+ at all times.\r
+ \r
+ Things change with the second workload: a random reader\r
+ against sequential writers. Now low-none reaches a much higher\r
+ total throughput than prop-bfq. low-none serves much more\r
+ sequential (write) I/O than prop-bfq because writes somehow\r
+ break the low-limit mechanisms and prevail over the reads of\r
+ the target. Conceivably, this happens because writes tend to\r
+ both starve reads in the OS (mainly by eating all available\r
+ I/O tags) and to cheat on their completion time in the drive.\r
+ In contrast, bfq is intentionally configured to privilege\r
+ reads, to counter these issues.\r
+ \r
+ In particular, low-none gets an even higher throughput than no\r
+ I/O control at all because it penalizes the random I/O of the\r
+ target even more than the no-controller configuration.\r
+ \r
+ Finally, with the last two workloads, prop-bfq reaches even\r
+ higher total throughput than with the first two. It happens\r
+ because the target also does sequential I/O, and serving\r
+ sequential I/O is much more beneficial for throughput than\r
+ serving random I/O. With these two workloads, the total\r
+ throughput is, respectively, close to or much higher than that\r
+ reached without I/O control. For the last workload, the total\r
+ throughput is much higher because, differently from none, bfq\r
+ privileges reads over asynchronous writes, and reads yield a\r
+ higher throughput than writes. In contrast, low-none still\r
+ gets lower or much lower throughput than prop-bfq, because of\r
+ the same issues that hinder low-none throughput with the first\r
+ two workloads.\r
+ \r
+ As for bandwidth guarantees, with readers as interferers\r
+ (third workload), prop-bfq, as expected, gives the target a\r
+ fraction of the total throughput proportional to its weight.\r
+ bfq approximates perfect proportional-share bandwidth\r
+ distribution among groups doing I/O of the same type (reads or\r
+ writes) and with the same locality (sequential or random).\r
+ With the last workload, prop-bfq gives much more throughput to\r
+ the reader than to all the interferers, because interferers\r
+ are asynchronous writers, and bfq privileges reads.\r
+ \r
+ The second group of workloads (static random), is the one,\r
+ among all the workloads considered, for which prop-bfq\r
+ performs worst. Results are shown below:\r
+ \r
+ This chart reports results not only for mainline bfq, but also\r
+ for an improved version of bfq which is currently under public\r
+ testing. As can be seen, with only random readers, prop-bfq\r
+ reaches a much lower total throughput than low-none. This\r
+ happens because of the Achilles heel of the bfq I/O scheduler.\r
+ If the process in service does synchronous I/O and has a\r
+ higher weight than some other process, then, to give strong\r
+ bandwidth guarantees to that process, bfq plugs I/O\r
+ dispatching every time the process temporarily stops issuing\r
+ I/O requests. In this respect, processes actually have\r
+ differentiated weights and do synchronous I/O in the workloads\r
+ tested. So bfq systematically performs I/O plugging for them.\r
+ Unfortunately, this plugging empties the internal queues of\r
+ the drive, which kills throughput with random I/O. And the I/O\r
+ of all processes in these workloads is also random.\r
+ \r
+ The situation reverses with a sequential reader as target.\r
+ Yet, the most interesting results come from the new version of\r
+ bfq, containing small changes to counter exactly the above\r
+ weakness. This version recovers most of the throughput loss\r
+ with the workload made of only random I/O and more; with the\r
+ second workload, where the target is a sequential reader, it\r
+ reaches about 3.7 times the total throughput of low-none.\r
+ \r
+ When the main concern is the latency of flows containing short\r
+ I/O, Linux seems now rather high performing, thanks to the bfq\r
+ I/O scheduler and the I/O latency controller. But if the\r
+ requirement is to provide explicit bandwidth guarantees (or\r
+ just fairness) to I/O flows, then one must be ready to give up\r
+ much or most of the speed of the storage media. bfq helps with\r
+ some workloads, but loses most of the throughput with\r
+ workloads consisting of mostly random I/O. Fortunately, there\r
+ is apparently hope for much better performance since an\r
+ improvement, still under development, seems to enable bfq to\r
+ reach a high throughput with all workloads tested so far.\r
+ \r
+ [ I wish to thank Vivek Goyal for enabling me to make this\r
+ article much more fair and sound.]\r
+ \r
+ [66]Comments (4 posted)\r
+ \r
+ [67]KDE's onboarding initiative, one year later\r
+ \r
+ August 24, 2018\r
+ \r
+ This article was contributed by Marta Rybczyńska\r
+ \r
+ [68]Akademy\r
+ \r
+ In 2017, the KDE community decided on [69]three goals to\r
+ concentrate on for the next few years. One of them was\r
+ [70]streamlining the onboarding of new contributors (the\r
+ others were [71]improving usability and [72]privacy ). During\r
+ [73]Akademy , the yearly KDE conference that was held in\r
+ Vienna in August, Neofytos Kolokotronis shared the status of\r
+ the onboarding goal, the work done during the last year, and\r
+ further plans. While it is a complicated process in a project\r
+ as big and diverse as KDE, numerous improvements have been\r
+ already made.\r
+ \r
+ Two of the three KDE community goals were proposed by relative\r
+ newcomers. Kolokotronis was one of those, having joined the\r
+ [74]KDE Promo team not long before proposing the focus on\r
+ onboarding. He had previously been involved with [75]Chakra\r
+ Linux , a distribution based on KDE software. The fact that\r
+ new members of the community proposed strategic goals was also\r
+ noted in the [76]Sunday keynote by Claudia Garad .\r
+ \r
+ Proper onboarding adds excitement to the contribution process\r
+ and increases retention, he explained. When we look at [77]the\r
+ definition of onboarding , it is a process in which the new\r
+ contributors acquire knowledge, skills, and behaviors so that\r
+ they can contribute effectively. Kolokotronis proposed to see\r
+ it also as socialization: integration into the project's\r
+ relationships, culture, structure, and procedures.\r
+ \r
+ The gains from proper onboarding are many. The project can\r
+ grow by attracting new blood with new perspectives and\r
+ solutions. The community maintains its health and stays\r
+ vibrant. Another important advantage of efficient onboarding\r
+ is that replacing current contributors becomes easier when\r
+ they change interests, jobs, or leave the project for whatever\r
+ reason. Finally, successful onboarding adds new advocates to\r
+ the project.\r
+ \r
+ Achievements so far and future plans\r
+ \r
+ The team started with ideas for a centralized onboarding\r
+ process for the whole of KDE. They found out quickly that this\r
+ would not work because KDE is "very decentralized", so it is\r
+ hard to provide tools and procedures that are going to work\r
+ for the whole project. According to Kolokotronis, other\r
+ characteristics of KDE that impact onboarding are high\r
+ diversity, remote and online teams, and hundreds of\r
+ contributors in dozens of projects and teams. In addition, new\r
+ contributors already know in which area they want to take part\r
+ and they prefer specific information that will be directly\r
+ useful for them.\r
+ \r
+ So the team changed its approach; several changes have since\r
+ been proposed and implemented. The [78]Get Involved page,\r
+ which is expected to be one of the resources new contributors\r
+ read first, has been rewritten. For the [79]Junior Jobs page ,\r
+ the team is [80] [81]discussing what the generic content for\r
+ KDE as a whole should be. The team simplified [82]Phabricator\r
+ registration , which resulted in documenting the process\r
+ better. Another part of the work includes the [83]KDE Bugzilla\r
+ ; it includes, for example initiatives to limit the number of\r
+ states of a ticket or remove obsolete products.\r
+ \r
+ The [84]Plasma Mobile team is heavily involved in the\r
+ onboarding goal. The Plasma Mobile developers have simplified\r
+ their development environment setup and created an\r
+ [85]interactive "Get Involved" page. In addition, the Plasma\r
+ team changed the way task descriptions are written; they now\r
+ contain more detail, so that it is easier to get involved. The\r
+ basic description should be short and clear, and it should\r
+ include details of the problem and possible solutions. The\r
+ developers try to share the list of skills necessary to\r
+ fulfill the tasks and include clear links to the technical\r
+ resources needed.\r
+ \r
+ Kolokotronis and team also identified a new potential source\r
+ of contributors for KDE: distributions using KDE. They have\r
+ the advantage of already knowing and using the software. The\r
+ next idea the team is working on is to make sure that setting\r
+ up a development environment is easy. The team plans to work\r
+ on this during a dedicated sprint this autumn.\r
+ \r
+ Searching for new contributors\r
+ \r
+ Kolokotronis plans to search for new contributors at the\r
+ periphery of the project, among the "skilled enthusiasts":\r
+ loyal users who actually care about the project. They "can\r
+ make wonders", he said. Those individuals may be also less\r
+ confident or shy, have troubles making the first step, and\r
+ need guidance. The project leaders should take that into\r
+ account.\r
+ \r
+ In addition, newcomers are all different. Kolokotronis\r
+ provided a long list of how contributors differ, including\r
+ skills and knowledge, motives and interests, and time and\r
+ dedication. His advice is to "try to find their superpower",\r
+ the skills they have that are missing in the team. Those\r
+ "superpowers" can then be used for the benefit of the project.\r
+ \r
+ If a project does nothing else, he said, it can start with its\r
+ documentation. However, this does not only mean code\r
+ documentation. Writing down the procedures or information\r
+ about the internal work of the project, like who is working on\r
+ what, is an important part of a project's documentation and\r
+ helps newcomers. There should be also guidelines on how to\r
+ start, especially setting up the development environment.\r
+ \r
+ The first thing the project leaders should do, according to\r
+ Kolokotronis, is to spend time on introducing newcomers to the\r
+ project. Ideally every new contributor should be assigned\r
+ mentors — more experienced members who can help them when\r
+ needed. The mentors and project leaders should find tasks that\r
+ are interesting for each person. Answering an audience\r
+ question on suggestions for shy new contributors, he\r
+ recommended even more mentoring. It is also very helpful to\r
+ make sure that newcomers have enough to read, but "avoid\r
+ RTFM", he highlighted. It is also easy for a new contributor\r
+ "to fly away", he said. The solution is to keep requesting\r
+ things and be proactive.\r
+ \r
+ What the project can do?\r
+ \r
+ Kolokotronis suggested a number of actions for a project when\r
+ it wants to improve its onboarding. The first step is\r
+ preparation: the project leaders should know the team's and\r
+ the project's needs. Long-term planning is important, too. It\r
+ is not enough to wait for contributors to come — the project\r
+ should be proactive, which means reaching out to candidates,\r
+ suggesting appropriate tasks and, finally, making people\r
+ available for the newcomers if they need help.\r
+ \r
+ This leads to next step: to be a mentor. Kolokotronis suggests\r
+ being a "great host", but also trying to phase out the\r
+ dependency on the mentor rapidly. "We have been all\r
+ newcomers", he said. It can be intimidating to join an\r
+ existing group. Onboarding creates a sense of belonging which,\r
+ in turn, increases retention.\r
+ \r
+ The last step proposed was to be strategic. This includes\r
+ thinking about the emotions you want newcomers to feel.\r
+ Kolokotronis explained the strategic part with an example. The\r
+ overall goal is (surprise!) improve onboarding of new\r
+ contributors. An intermediate objective might be to keep the\r
+ newcomers after they have made their first commit. If your\r
+ strategy is to keep them confident and proud, you can use\r
+ different tactics like praise and acknowledgment of the work\r
+ in public. Another useful tactic may be assigning simple\r
+ tasks, according to the skill of the contributor.\r
+ \r
+ To summarize, the most important thing, according to\r
+ Kolokotronis, is to respond quickly and spend time with new\r
+ contributors. This time should be used to explain procedures,\r
+ and to introduce the people and culture. It is also essential\r
+ to guide first contributions and praise contributor's skill\r
+ and effort. Increase the difficulty of tasks over time to keep\r
+ contributors motivated and challenged. And finally, he said,\r
+ "turn them into mentors".\r
+ \r
+ Kolokotronis acknowledges that onboarding "takes time" and\r
+ "everyone complains" about it. However, he is convinced that\r
+ it is beneficial in the long term and that it decreases\r
+ developer turnover.\r
+ \r
+ Advice to newcomers\r
+ \r
+ Kolokotronis concluded with some suggestions for newcomers to\r
+ a project. They should try to be persistent and to not get\r
+ discouraged when something goes wrong. Building connections\r
+ from the very beginning is helpful. He suggests asking\r
+ questions as if you were already a member "and things will be\r
+ fine". However, accept criticism if it happens.\r
+ \r
+ One of the next actions of the onboarding team will be to\r
+ collect feedback from newcomers and experienced contributors\r
+ to see if they agree on the ideas and processes introduced so\r
+ far.\r
+ \r
+ [86]Comments (none posted)\r
+ \r
+ [87]Sharing and archiving data sets with Dat\r
+ \r
+ August 27, 2018\r
+ \r
+ This article was contributed by Antoine Beaupré\r
+ \r
+ [88]Dat is a new peer-to-peer protocol that uses some of the\r
+ concepts of [89]BitTorrent and Git. Dat primarily targets\r
+ researchers and open-data activists as it is a great tool for\r
+ sharing, archiving, and cataloging large data sets. But it can\r
+ also be used to implement decentralized web applications in a\r
+ novel way.\r
+ \r
+ Dat quick primer\r
+ \r
+ Dat is written in JavaScript, so it can be installed with npm\r
+ , but there are [90]standalone binary builds and a [91]desktop\r
+ application (as an AppImage). An [92]online viewer can be used\r
+ to inspect data for those who do not want to install arbitrary\r
+ binaries on their computers.\r
+ \r
+ The command-line application allows basic operations like\r
+ downloading existing data sets and sharing your own. Dat uses\r
+ a 32-byte hex string that is an [93]ed25519 public key , which\r
+ is is used to discover and find content on the net. For\r
+ example, this will download some sample data: $ dat clone \\r
+ \r
+ dat://778f8d955175c92e4ced5e4f5563f69bfec0c86cc6f670352c457943-\r
+ 666fe639 \\r
+ \r
+ ~/Downloads/dat-demo\r
+ \r
+ Similarly, the share command is used to share content. It\r
+ indexes the files in a given directory and creates a new\r
+ unique address like the one above. The share command starts a\r
+ server that uses multiple discovery mechanisms (currently, the\r
+ [94]Mainline Distributed Hash Table (DHT), a [95]custom DNS\r
+ server , and multicast DNS) to announce the content to its\r
+ peers. This is how another user, armed with that public key,\r
+ can download that content with dat clone or mirror the files\r
+ continuously with dat sync .\r
+ \r
+ So far, this looks a lot like BitTorrent [96]magnet links\r
+ updated with 21st century cryptography. But Dat adds revisions\r
+ on top of that, so modifications are automatically shared\r
+ through the swarm. That is important for public data sets as\r
+ those are often dynamic in nature. Revisions also make it\r
+ possible to use [97]Dat as a backup system by saving the data\r
+ incrementally using an [98]archiver .\r
+ \r
+ While Dat is designed to work on larger data sets, processing\r
+ them for sharing may take a while. For example, sharing the\r
+ Linux kernel source code required about five minutes as Dat\r
+ worked on indexing all of the files. This is comparable to the\r
+ performance offered by [99]IPFS and BitTorrent. Data sets with\r
+ more or larger files may take quite a bit more time.\r
+ \r
+ One advantage that Dat has over IPFS is that it doesn't\r
+ duplicate the data. When IPFS imports new data, it duplicates\r
+ the files into ~/.ipfs . For collections of small files like\r
+ the kernel, this is not a huge problem, but for larger files\r
+ like videos or music, it's a significant limitation. IPFS\r
+ eventually implemented a solution to this [100]problem in the\r
+ form of the experimental [101]filestore feature , but it's not\r
+ enabled by default. Even with that feature enabled, though,\r
+ changes to data sets are not automatically tracked. In\r
+ comparison, Dat operation on dynamic data feels much lighter.\r
+ The downside is that each set needs its own dat share process.\r
+ \r
+ Like any peer-to-peer system, Dat needs at least one peer to\r
+ stay online to offer the content, which is impractical for\r
+ mobile devices. Hosting providers like [102]Hashbase (which is\r
+ a [103]pinning service in Dat jargon) can help users keep\r
+ content online without running their own [104]server . The\r
+ closest parallel in the traditional web ecosystem would\r
+ probably be content distribution networks (CDN) although\r
+ pinning services are not necessarily geographically\r
+ distributed and a CDN does not necessarily retain a complete\r
+ copy of a website. [105]\r
+ \r
+ A web browser called [106]Beaker , based on the [107]Electron\r
+ framework, can access Dat content natively without going\r
+ through a pinning service. Furthermore, Beaker is essential to\r
+ get any of the [108]Dat applications working, as they\r
+ fundamentally rely on dat:// URLs to do their magic. This\r
+ means that Dat applications won't work for most users unless\r
+ they install that special web browser. There is a [109]Firefox\r
+ extension called " [110]dat-fox " for people who don't want to\r
+ install yet another browser, but it requires installing a\r
+ [111]helper program . The extension will be able to load\r
+ dat:// URLs but many applications will still not work. For\r
+ example, the [112]photo gallery application completely fails\r
+ with dat-fox.\r
+ \r
+ Dat-based applications look promising from a privacy point of\r
+ view. Because of its peer-to-peer nature, users regain control\r
+ over where their data is stored: either on their own computer,\r
+ an online server, or by a trusted third party. But considering\r
+ the protocol is not well established in current web browsers,\r
+ I foresee difficulties in adoption of that aspect of the Dat\r
+ ecosystem. Beyond that, it is rather disappointing that Dat\r
+ applications cannot run natively in a web browser given that\r
+ JavaScript is designed exactly for that.\r
+ \r
+ Dat privacy\r
+ \r
+ An advantage Dat has over other peer-to-peer protocols like\r
+ BitTorrent is end-to-end encryption. I was originally\r
+ concerned by the encryption design when reading the\r
+ [113]academic paper [PDF] :\r
+ \r
+ It is up to client programs to make design decisions around\r
+ which discovery networks they trust. For example if a Dat\r
+ client decides to use the BitTorrent DHT to discover peers,\r
+ and they are searching for a publicly shared Dat key (e.g. a\r
+ key cited publicly in a published scientific paper) with known\r
+ contents, then because of the privacy design of the BitTorrent\r
+ DHT it becomes public knowledge what key that client is\r
+ searching for.\r
+ \r
+ So in other words, to share a secret file with another user,\r
+ the public key is transmitted over a secure side-channel, only\r
+ to then leak during the discovery process. Fortunately, the\r
+ public Dat key is not directly used during discovery as it is\r
+ [114]hashed with BLAKE2B . Still, the security model of Dat\r
+ assumes the public key is private, which is a rather\r
+ counterintuitive concept that might upset cryptographers and\r
+ confuse users who are frequently encouraged to type such\r
+ strings in address bars and search engines as part of the Dat\r
+ experience. There is a [115]security & privacy FAQ in the Dat\r
+ documentation warning about this problem:\r
+ \r
+ One of the key elements of Dat privacy is that the public key\r
+ is never used in any discovery network. The public key is\r
+ hashed, creating the discovery key. Whenever peers attempt to\r
+ connect to each other, they use the discovery key.\r
+ \r
+ Data is encrypted using the public key, so it is important\r
+ that this key stays secure.\r
+ \r
+ There are other privacy issues outlined in the document; it\r
+ states that " Dat faces similar privacy risks as BitTorrent ":\r
+ \r
+ When you download a dataset, your IP address is exposed to the\r
+ users sharing that dataset. This may lead to honeypot servers\r
+ collecting IP addresses, as we've seen in Bittorrent. However,\r
+ with dataset sharing we can create a web of trust model where\r
+ specific institutions are trusted as primary sources for\r
+ datasets, diminishing the sharing of IP addresses.\r
+ \r
+ A Dat blog post refers to this issue as [116]reader privacy\r
+ and it is, indeed, a sensitive issue in peer-to-peer networks.\r
+ It is how BitTorrent users are discovered and served scary\r
+ verbiage from lawyers, after all. But Dat makes this a little\r
+ better because, to join a swarm, you must know what you are\r
+ looking for already, which means peers who can look at swarm\r
+ activity only include users who know the secret public key.\r
+ This works well for secret content, but for larger, public\r
+ data sets, it is a real problem; it is why the Dat project has\r
+ [117]avoided creating a Wikipedia mirror so far.\r
+ \r
+ I found another privacy issue that is not documented in the\r
+ security FAQ during my review of the protocol. As mentioned\r
+ earlier, the [118]Dat discovery protocol routinely phones home\r
+ to DNS servers operated by the Dat project. This implies that\r
+ the default discovery servers (and an attacker watching over\r
+ their traffic) know who is publishing or seeking content, in\r
+ essence discovering the "social network" behind Dat. This\r
+ discovery mechanism can be disabled in clients, but a similar\r
+ privacy issue applies to the DHT as well, although that is\r
+ distributed so it doesn't require trust of the Dat project\r
+ itself.\r
+ \r
+ Considering those aspects of the protocol, privacy-conscious\r
+ users will probably want to use Tor or other anonymization\r
+ techniques to work around those concerns.\r
+ \r
+ The future of Dat\r
+ \r
+ [119]Dat 2.0 was released in June 2017 with performance\r
+ improvements and protocol changes. [120]Dat Enhancement\r
+ Proposals (DEPs) guide the project's future development; most\r
+ work is currently geared toward implementing the draft "\r
+ [121]multi-writer proposal " in [122]HyperDB . Without\r
+ multi-writer support, only the original publisher of a Dat can\r
+ modify it. According to Joe Hand, co-executive-director of\r
+ [123]Code for Science & Society (CSS) and Dat core developer,\r
+ in an IRC chat, "supporting multiwriter is a big requirement\r
+ for lots of folks". For example, while Dat might allow Alice\r
+ to share her research results with Bob, he cannot modify or\r
+ contribute back to those results. The multi-writer extension\r
+ allows for Alice to assign trust to Bob so he can have write\r
+ access to the data.\r
+ \r
+ Unfortunately, the current proposal doesn't solve the " hard\r
+ problems " of " conflict merges and secure key distribution ".\r
+ The former will be worked out through user interface tweaks,\r
+ but the latter is a classic problem that security projects\r
+ have typically trouble finding solutions for—Dat is no\r
+ exception. How will Alice securely trust Bob? The OpenPGP web\r
+ of trust? Hexadecimal fingerprints read over the phone? Dat\r
+ doesn't provide a magic solution to this problem.\r
+ \r
+ Another thing limiting adoption is that Dat is not packaged in\r
+ any distribution that I could find (although I [124]requested\r
+ it in Debian ) and, considering the speed of change of the\r
+ JavaScript ecosystem, this is unlikely to change any time\r
+ soon. A [125]Rust implementation of the Dat protocol has\r
+ started, however, which might be easier to package than the\r
+ multitude of [126]Node.js modules. In terms of mobile device\r
+ support, there is an experimental Android web browser with Dat\r
+ support called [127]Bunsen , which somehow doesn't run on my\r
+ phone. Some adventurous users have successfully run Dat in\r
+ [128]Termux . I haven't found an app running on iOS at this\r
+ point.\r
+ \r
+ Even beyond platform support, distributed protocols like Dat\r
+ have a tough slope to climb against the virtual monopoly of\r
+ more centralized protocols, so it remains to be seen how\r
+ popular those tools will be. Hand says Dat is supported by\r
+ multiple non-profit organizations. Beyond CSS, [129]Blue Link\r
+ Labs is working on the Beaker Browser as a self-funded startup\r
+ and a grass-roots organization, [130]Digital Democracy , has\r
+ contributed to the project. The [131]Internet Archive has\r
+ [132]announced a collaboration between itself, CSS, and the\r
+ California Digital Library to launch a pilot project to see "\r
+ how members of a cooperative, decentralized network can\r
+ leverage shared services to ensure data preservation while\r
+ reducing storage costs and increasing replication counts ".\r
+ \r
+ Hand said adoption in academia has been "slow but steady" and\r
+ that the [133]Dat in the Lab project has helped identify areas\r
+ that could help researchers adopt the project. Unfortunately,\r
+ as is the case with many free-software projects, he said that\r
+ "our team is definitely a bit limited on bandwidth to push for\r
+ bigger adoption". Hand said that the project received a grant\r
+ from [134]Mozilla Open Source Support to improve its\r
+ documentation, which will be a big help.\r
+ \r
+ Ultimately, Dat suffers from a problem common to all\r
+ peer-to-peer applications, which is naming. Dat addresses are\r
+ not exactly intuitive: humans do not remember strings of 64\r
+ hexadecimal characters well. For this, Dat took a [135]similar\r
+ approach to IPFS by using DNS TXT records and /.well-known URL\r
+ paths to bridge existing, human-readable names with Dat\r
+ hashes. So this sacrifices a part of the decentralized nature\r
+ of the project in favor of usability.\r
+ \r
+ I have tested a lot of distributed protocols like Dat in the\r
+ past and I am not sure Dat is a clear winner. It certainly has\r
+ advantages over IPFS in terms of usability and resource usage,\r
+ but the lack of packages on most platforms is a big limit to\r
+ adoption for most people. This means it will be difficult to\r
+ share content with my friends and family with Dat anytime\r
+ soon, which would probably be my primary use case for the\r
+ project. Until the protocol reaches the wider adoption that\r
+ BitTorrent has seen in terms of platform support, I will\r
+ probably wait before switching everything over to this\r
+ promising project.\r
+ \r
+ [136]Comments (11 posted)\r
+ \r
+ Page editor : Jonathan Corbet\r
+ \r
+ Inside this week's LWN.net Weekly Edition\r
+ \r
+ [137]Briefs : OpenSSH 7.8; 4.19-rc1; Which stable?; Netdev\r
+ 0x12; Bison 3.1; Quotes; ...\r
+ \r
+ [138]Announcements : Newsletters; events; security updates;\r
+ kernel patches; ... Next page : [139]Brief items>>\r
+ \r
+ \r
+ \r
+ [1] https://lwn.net/Articles/763743/\r
+ \r
+ [2] https://lwn.net/Articles/763626/\r
+ \r
+ [3] https://lwn.net/Articles/763641/\r
+ \r
+ [4] https://lwn.net/Articles/763106/\r
+ \r
+ [5] https://lwn.net/Articles/763603/\r
+ \r
+ [6] https://lwn.net/Articles/763175/\r
+ \r
+ [7] https://lwn.net/Articles/763492/\r
+ \r
+ [8] https://lwn.net/Articles/763254/\r
+ \r
+ [9] https://lwn.net/Articles/763255/\r
+ \r
+ [10] https://lwn.net/Articles/763743/#Comments\r
+ \r
+ [11] https://lwn.net/Articles/763626/\r
+ \r
+ [12] http://julialang.org/\r
+ \r
+ [13] https://julialang.org/blog/2018/08/one-point-zero\r
+ \r
+ [14] https://julialang.org/benchmarks/\r
+ \r
+ [15] https://juliacomputing.com/\r
+ \r
+ [16] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read%E2%80%93eval%E2%80%93p-\r
+ rint_loop\r
+ \r
+ [17] http://llvm.org/\r
+ \r
+ [18] http://www.3blue1brown.com/essence-of-linear-algebra-page/\r
+ \r
+ [19] http://www.netlib.org/lapack/\r
+ \r
+ [20] https://lwn.net/Articles/657157/\r
+ \r
+ [21] https://julialang.org/publications/julia-fresh-approach-B-\r
+ EKS.pdf\r
+ \r
+ [22] https://lwn.net/Articles/738915/\r
+ \r
+ [23] https://pypy.org/\r
+ \r
+ [24] https://github.com/JuliaPy/PyCall.jl\r
+ \r
+ [25] https://github.com/JuliaInterop/RCall.jl\r
+ \r
+ [26] https://docs.julialang.org/en/stable/\r
+ \r
+ [27] https://julialang.org/learning/\r
+ \r
+ [28] http://bogumilkaminski.pl/files/julia_express.pdf\r
+ \r
+ [29] https://docs.julialang.org/en/stable/manual/noteworthy-di-\r
+ fferences/#Noteworthy-differences-from-Python-1\r
+ \r
+ [30] https://lwn.net/Articles/746386/\r
+ \r
+ [31] https://github.com/JuliaLang/IJulia.jl\r
+ \r
+ [32] https://lwn.net/Articles/764001/\r
+ \r
+ [33] https://lwn.net/Articles/763626/#Comments\r
+ \r
+ [34] https://lwn.net/Articles/763641/\r
+ \r
+ [35] https://lwn.net/Archives/ConferenceByYear/#2018-Linux_Sec-\r
+ urity_Summit_NA\r
+ \r
+ [36] https://events.linuxfoundation.org/events/linux-security-\r
+ summit-north-america-2018/\r
+ \r
+ [37] https://kernsec.org/wiki/index.php/Kernel_Self_Protection-\r
+ _Project\r
+ \r
+ [38] https://lwn.net/Articles/763644/\r
+ \r
+ [39] https://raphlinus.github.io/programming/rust/2018/08/17/u-\r
+ ndefined-behavior.html\r
+ \r
+ [40] https://lwn.net/Articles/749064/\r
+ \r
+ [41] https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/torvalds/-\r
+ linux.git/commit/?id=02361bc77888\r
+ \r
+ [42] https://lore.kernel.org/lkml/CA+55aFzCG-zNmZwX4A2FQpadafL-\r
+ fEzK6CC=qPXydAacU1RqZWA@mail.gmail.com/T/#u\r
+ \r
+ [43] https://lwn.net/Articles/758245/\r
+ \r
+ [44] https://lwn.net/Articles/718888/\r
+ \r
+ [45] https://lwn.net/Articles/744507/\r
+ \r
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+\r
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git://git.nikiroo.be / gofetch.git / commitdiff